Stephen Cory Robinson

Using textual analysis methodology with Hofstede's cultural dimensions as basis for cross-national comparison, the manuscript explores the influence of cultural values of trust, transparency, and openness in Nordic national artificial intelligence (AI) policy documents. Where many AI processes are technologies hidden from view of the citizen, how can public institutions support and ensure these high levels of trust, transparency, and openness in Nordic culture and extend these concepts of "digital trust" to AI? One solution is by authoring national policy that upholds cultural values and personal rights, ultimately reinforcing these values in their societies. The paper highlights differences in how Nordic nations position themselves using cultural values as organizing principles, with the author showing these values (i.e., trust through clear information and information security, transparency through AI literacy education and clear algorithmic decision making, and openness by creating data lakes and data trusts) support the development of AI technology in society. The analysis shows that three cultural values are upheld and influence Nordic national AI strategies, while themes of privacy, ethics, and autonomy are present, and democracy, a societal building block in the Nordics, is especially prominent in the policies. For policy development, policy leaders must understand that without citizen involvement in AI implementation or lacking citizen AI education, we risk alienating those for who these services are meant to utilize and improve access for.

Wearable technologies have created fascinating opportunities for patients to treat chronic pain in a discreet, mobile fashion. However, many of these health wearables require patients to disclose sensitive information, including health information (e.g., heart rate, glucose levels) and personal information (location, email, name, etc.). Individuals using wearables for treatment of chronic pain may sacrifice social health elements, including their privacy, in exchange for better physical and mental health. Utilizing communication privacy management, a popular disclosure theory, this article explores the policy and ethical ramifications of patients disclosing sensitive health information in exchange for better health treatment and relief of chronic pain. The article identifies scenarios where a user must disclose information, and what factors motivate or dissuade disclosure, and ultimately the use of a health wearable. Practical implications of this conceptual article include an improved understanding of how and why consumers may disclose personal data to health wearables, and potential impacts for public policy and ethics regarding how wearables and their manufacturers entice disclosure of private health information.

To test a theoretical model, this study explores the effect of anxiety, trust, personality, and perceived benefits on the disclosure of personal information online. An online survey conducted among participants in the United States (n = 248, age range: 20–82 years) examined attitudes toward disclosing personal data online. Specifically, the study researches the impact of anxiety disclosing personal data, trust (both in the Internet and in institutions), the Big Five personality traits, and four sets of perceived shopping benefits (opportunity, bargain, purchase, and expected privacy benefits) in e-commerce disclosure and their role as antecedents for adoption and use of e-commerce. The study aligns with existing trust literature and corroborates other findings on how perceived purchase benefits impact individuals’ attitudes toward disclosing personal data online. The data suggest that both trust in the Internet and trust in institutions positively influence attitude toward disclosing personal data online. Perceived purchase benefits were also significant positive predictors for attitude toward disclosing personal data online. Furthermore, personality dimensions can affect attitude toward disclosing: the more neurotic a person is, the more negative their attitude is about disclosing personal data online. The study underscores that consumers have a responsibility to educate themselves about online disclosure and marketing practices, and about how to protect their online privacy. Most importantly, fostering trust, reducing anxiety, and promoting benefits are essential to the future of e-commerce. Implications for theory, consumers, marketing practice, and public policy are also discussed.

Purpose: The viability of online anonymity is questioned in today’s online environment where many technologies enable tracking and identification of individuals. By highlighting the shortcomings of government, industry and consumers in protecting anonymity, it is clear that a new perspective for ensuring anonymity is needed. Where current stakeholders have failed to protect anonymity, some proponents argue economic models exist for valuation of anonymity. By placing monetary value on anonymity through Rawls’ concept of primary goods, it is possible to create a marketplace for anonymity, therefore allowing users full control of how their personal data is used. Such a marketplace offers users the possibility to engage with companies and other entities to sell and auction personal data. Importantly, participation in a marketplace does not sacrifice one’s anonymity since there are different levels of anonymity in online systems.

Design/methodology/approach: The paper utilizes a conceptual framework based on the abstractions of anonymity and data valuation.
Findings: The manuscript constructs a conceptual foundation for exploring the development and deployment of a personal data marketplace. By suggesting features allowing individuals’ control of their personal data, and properly establishing monetary valuation of one’s personal data, it is argued that individuals will take a more proactive management of personal data.

Research limitations/implications: Because the paper is conceptual in nature, it would be beneficial to explore the feasibility of establishing a personal data marketplace.

Originality/value: An overview of available services and products offering increased anonymity is explored, in turn, illustrating the beginnings of a market response for anonymity as a valuable good. By placing monetary value on individuals’ anonymity, it is reasoned that individuals will more consciously protect their anonymity in ways where legislation and other practices (i.e., privacy policies, marketing opt-out) have failed.

This study examines how willingness to disclose and perceived risks of disclosing personally identifying information (PII, also referred to as personal data in Europe) in ecommerce is affected by demographic variables. The study was conducted among participants in the US and Estonia, and utilized a 17-item list of potential disclosure items (name, email address, etc.), categorized reliably into six sub-indices: contact information, payment information, life history information, financial/medical information, work-related information, and online account information. Online disclosure consciousness (ODC) is introduced as a framework to conceptualize, explain the study’s findings, and empirically measure the gap between one’s willingness to disclose and perceived risk pertaining to the overall 17-item index used in the study, the sub-indices, and particular items. The results show significant gaps among participants both within and across nations. Despite Estonia’s advanced adoption and progressive policies and practices toward the Internet, Americans are more willing to disclose, and less concerned about perceived risks. The findings suggest willingness to disclose and risk aversion can and should be analyzed empirically together. The theoretical model provides an alternative conceptualization to the ideas of the privacy paradox, privacy calculus, and privacy cost-benefit ratios. Implications for theory, consumers, marketing practice, and public policy are discussed. Importantly, the study can inform increased adoption of ecommerce and the digital economy, while also protecting consumer’s personal data.

An online survey conducted among participants in the US (n = 248) and Estonia (n=225) examined willingness to disclose and perceived risks pertaining to disclosing personally identifying information (PII, also referred to as personal data in Europe) in ecommerce, as well as attitude toward disclosure in general, and anxiety disclosing personal data. Additionally, the study investigated how willingness to disclose and perceived risk of disclosing personal data were affected by demographic variables, trust in the Internet and trust in institutions, the Big Five personality dimensions found in the psychology literature (neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion), and four sets of perceived shopping benefits (opportunity benefits, bargain benefits, purchase benefits, and expected privacy benefits).

Despite Estonia’s advanced adoption and progressive policies and practices toward the Internet, Americans were more willing to disclose, exhibited more positive attitudes, demonstrated less anxiety, and were less concerned about perceived risks. For Estonians, ecommerce experience, perceived purchase benefits, and trust in the Internet and institutions were significant predictors of willingness to disclose personal data. Americans who perceived purchase benefits were found to be the most likely to disclose PII, while Americans with lower levels of education were also more willing to disclose.

The study utilized a 17-item list of potential disclosure items (name, email address, etc.) and showed these can be categorized reliably into six sub-indices: contact information, payment information, life history information, financial/medical information, work-related information, and online account information. Further, a reliable efficient, 20-item scale was developed that can be deployed in future studies investigating the Big Five personality traits.

Online disclosure consciousness (ODC) was introduced as a framework to conceptualize and empirically measure the gap between one’s willingness to disclose and perceived risk pertaining to the overall 17-item index used in the study, the sub-indices, and particular items. Using 7-point Likert-type measures, the results showed significant gaps among participants both within and across nations.

A 5-scenario online disclosure consciousness model is presented to explain the tradeoffs involved in making a disclosure decision, with absolute willingness to disclose and absolute risk aversion on the two extremes and theoretical midpoint where the two competing motivations cancel themselves out. Changes in a person’s position along the continuum are posited to be influenced by marketers’ initiatives, personal experiences, and external factors.

Implications for theory, consumers, marketing practice, and public policy are discussed. The findings suggest that willingness to disclose and risk aversion can and should be analyzed empirically together. Thus, the ODC model provides an alternative conceptualization to the ideas of the privacy paradox, privacy calculus, and privacy cost-benefit ratios found in the literature. Consumers have a responsibility to educate themselves about online disclosure practices and how to protect their privacy. These findings suggest marketers and policy makers should recognize that data disclosed online are not all equally sensitive to consumers. However, fostering trust, reducing risks, and promoting benefits are essential to the future of ecommerce.

This paper defines current data-collection practices known as data mining, examining several positive and negative ramifications. A Rawlsian approach is used to analyze the ethical implications of data mining within three major codes of ethics used by American marketing firms (AMA, BMA, and DMA). From this theoretical standpoint, the author argues that marketers should re-conceptualize their business conduct, as defined in their individual codes of ethics, to incorporate a Rawlsian concern for society’s least advantaged members. Rawls’ concept of primary goods provides the framework for the author's argument that anonymity, a component of privacy, is vital for consumers whose autonomy is affected by data mining. To ensure both privacy and protection of consumer information, specifically for the least advantaged, a combination of practical measures, ethical guidelines, and legislative protections are recommended for minimizing concerns about data mining, while still allowing for commercial advantages provided by the practice. Finally, the paper outlines the implications of proposed changes for marketers and advertisers.

In our fast-changing technological world, the line between the offline and online world has become blurred and individuals are faced with constant opportunities to divulge personal details. The process of disclosing sensitive information to others is necessary for establishing, maintaining, and building relationships, both with people and businesses; however, it also creates opportunities for misuse of the disclosed information. Consumers who are willing to disclose personal information online may often be unaware of the full implications of such disclosure. By thoroughly exploring the origins and processes of self-disclosure, and outlining its development in interpersonal and online communication, individuals will become more aware of their (sometimes competing) implicit and explicit disclosure behaviors necessary for enacting strong privacy management. Utilizing communication privacy management (CPM) theory, this article proposes a framework for ongoing consideration of how self-disclosure and privacy function online. By framing privacy in terms of the literature of communicative self- disclosure, CPM instructs the building of privacy boundaries that are functional for consumers and marketers alike, allowing people to protect themselves online while also ensuring their continued enjoyment of Internet provided benefits.

Protection of personal information in online environments is vital to most individuals, including those of varying ages in the three distinct age groups of children, adolescents and emerging adults. As each group interacts online, they utilise different disclosure practices and protection mechanisms to manage and distribute their personal information. Using communication privacy management theory (CPM), this paper examines how privacy management strategies in online environments differ between children, adolescents and emerging adults. After describing self-disclosure and CPM, the manuscript examines how the three groups engage and practice disclosure in varying ways. The paper considers theoretical strengths and weaknesses of the privacy management approach, and explores the applicability of the tenets of CPM to online communication in self-disclosure. In concluding, the manuscript argues that a greater understanding of the privacy protection mechanisms employed by children, adolescents, and emerging adults will help to strengthen privacy regulation and protection of personal information for each of these specific groups. Implications for media literacy, privacy protection practices, online marketing and advertising are presented as well.

The commodification of personal data through use of social networks has created critical privacy issues for citizens around the world. As Google, Facebook, Amazon and other corporate entities extend into more sensitive and financially lucrative areas like health and medical data, important questions of data ownership arise. Do patients own their own data, or do they co-own with these corporate entities, like Google or Facebook? Similarly, does the state or municipality also share ownership with the patient and Google? Important privacy and ethical dilemmas arise from these blurred boundaries of health data co-ownership, which this seminar will address and overview.

Wearable technologies have created fascinating opportunities for patients to treat chronic pain in a discreet, mobile fashion. However, many of these health wearables, either by themselves or paired with accompanying smartphone applications, require patients to disclose sensitive information, including health information (heart rate, glucose levels) and personal information (GPS location, email, name, social media accounts, etc).

The delicate balance of protecting patients’ sensitive health data while still receiving effective healthcare can be defined as a risk/reward scenario. Previously, this risk/reward relationship of disclosure has been studied in interpersonal communication, digital communications, and health environments. Individuals using wearables for treatment of chronic pain may also sacrifice social health elements, including their privacy, in exchange for better physical and mental health. Utilizing communication privacy management, a popular disclosure theory, the presentation will explore the policy and ethical ramifications of patients disclosing sensitive health information in exchange for better health treatment and relief of chronic pain.

The seminar will identify scenarios where a user must disclose information, and what factors motivate or dissuade disclosure, and ultimately using a wearable. Practical implications of this seminar include an improved understanding of how and why consumers may disclose personal data to health wearables, and potential impacts for public policy and ethics regarding how wearables and their manufacturers entice disclosure of private health information.