Werner Gronau, Karl Reiter & Robert Pressl (Ed.).: Transport and Health Issues. Mannheim 2011, 141-158 (=Studies on Mobility and Transport Research) Health Motivations for Recreational Walking Davies, NJ ( UK ), Lumsdon ( UK ), LM, Weston, R ( UK ) Abstract This paper seeks to explore the motivations and preferences of recreational walkers in near-urban areas. It evaluates health as a motivational factor in relation to others and draws implications for planners of walking routes and trails. A qualitative focus group method was employed, in order to generate open discussion amongst recreational walkers from a range of backgrounds and levels of interest, participation and experience, drawing out themes regarding motivations to walk, and potential issues relating to a proposed walking trail. Additionally, of particular interest were the attitudes of walkers regarding transport to locations for walking. 1 Introduction 46B Walking is the most important recreational activity in the UK as elsewhere in Europe. It requires little equipment other than outdoor garments and is feasible for most of the population. There is also a network of footpaths in urban and countryside areas where capacity exists for many more walkers and which requires only very modest investment to make attractive. Thus, walking offers considerable potential to engage an increasingly sedentary population to exercise more. There are an estimated 527 million walking trips annually to the English countryside (Christie et al: 2003). This calculation is based on figures from: ‘leisure day visits’ (round trips from home to UK locations), which involve a ‘walk, hill walk or ramble’ (Social and Community Planning Research: 2000); walking trips undertaken on holiday by domestic tourists (UTKS: 2001) and data on walking visits of international visitors adapted from the International Passenger Survey (Office for National Statistics: 2000). Approximately 62% of walks for leisure are over 2 miles (3.2 km) (ICM: 2000). One of the main motivations for choosing to walk or cycle for leisure is to improve and maintain physical health (Lee & Paffenbarger: 2000). Studies of health have frequently utilised interventions designed to increase levels of physical activity (Dunn et. al: 1998, Perry et al: 1987, Marcus et al: 1992) in order to combat pressing health problems associated with sedentary living such as obesity (Gortmaker et al: 1999,Van Sluijs et al: 2007) and coronary heart disease (Leon et al: 2007). Some interventions have concentrated on transport where the focus has been to increase the 142 Health Motivations for Recreational Walking level of active or healthy travel in relation to walking and cycling (Sallis et al: 1998, Brownson et al: 2000). However, several studies point to the importance of the environment in which recreational activity takes place. Access to suitable spaces for walking is important (Giles Corti et al: 2005, Hilsden et al: 2006). There also is a strong association between health and income (Stronks et al: 1997), especially in that low income groups generally experience more barriers to physical activity (Dowler: 2001). The availability of walking trails near residential areas is thus a potentially important factor to increase levels of physical activity across wide areas of the population (Krizek & Johnson: 2006). Achieving a modal shift has benefits other than those to personal health, namely reducing negative impacts to the natural and social environment (Marshall & Bannister: 2000, Blowers: 1995). For example, walking routes can bring about a reduction in car trips made for leisure, thus reducing the environmental impacts of travel. Car travel is the largest producer of CO2 emissions from road transport, (Kwon: 2004), which brings a threat to ecosystems which support life (Gössling: 2002), and is a major contributor to air pollution (Small & Kazimi: 1995). It is also responsible for ever-increasing infrastructure and fuel consumption (Davenport & Davenport: 2006). Leisure trips make up more than half of all car trips (Gronau & Kagermeier: 2007) and thus is a problematic area which needs to be addressed. However, whilst replacing a motorised trip for leisure by a walk is a potential outcome of a walking trail, the propensity of walkers to drive to the start point of their walk remains an issue for both transport planners and developers of recreational trails. 2 Study Area 47B The River Trent flows through five central English Counties: Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire and finally Lincolnshire where its confluence with the River Ouse becomes the Humber Estuary on the East coast of England. A proposed long-distance trail will follow the River Trent from source to sea, covering a distance of 166 miles (284 km) and passing through major urban areas. Within the Trent catchment, there are an approximate six million residents. The main aim is to improve the quality of life for communities, supporting the local economy and conserving and enhancing the natural environment in the Trent Valley (On Trent: 2007). It is proposed that the route uses the existing footpath network and by passing by numerous nature reserves and other tourist attractions as well as being connected to other paths and trails. In the paper the term path is used to indicate a right of way for people to walk which is essentially for short distances in any given locality. The term trail is used to refer to a long distance trail, say over 30 miles or 48 km and will attract those who want to walk longer distances as well as short duration D.J. Davies, L.M. Lumsdon, R. Weston 143 walkers. Archaeology, industrial history, wildlife and other historical sites provide further points of interest for potential visitors to the trail. This falls within the remit of the regional planning frameworks seeking to encourage walking as a tourism activity, increasing social inclusion, and providing more opportunities for environmentally sustainable forms of recreation. 3 Method The focus group method was selected as the researchers were seeking to ascertain values regarding motivations and preferences for walking, as well as evaluating potential ideas for a walking trail. This particular method allows shared understanding, a group dynamic and interaction between individuals on a theme which is of common interest (Gibbs: 1997). Morgan (1997) describes the benefits of focus groups as illuminating aspects which cannot be attained from other qualitative methods, such as individual and participant observation. Whereas focus groups can provide a means to draw out data from a group of people quicker than participant observation, due to the facilitator being able to direct the session, they can also take more burden off participants than is placed on the interviewee in an individual interview, allowing the dialogue to flow. The limitations of focus groups might include: topics being difficult to steer and control, and participants responding to peer pressure by giving similar answers (Morgan: 1997). The use of this method allowed a comparison between the attitudes and preferences of walkers from sites situated near the trail and other areas. Five focus groups were held in universities in key urban areas with respondents being recruited by intranet, advertising, press coverage with local papers and eventually snowballing to include residents from the area. There was no other incentive for attendance other than interest in the subject but hospitality was provided. The groups comprised between 6 and 12 participants. The duration of each group was between 30 minutes and 1 hour and involved an experienced moderator (the same person in each case) directing the discussion between participants using a pre-set list of topics and questions, with some additional visual material relating to potential imagery, waymarks and maps for the trail. The focus groups were recorded and transcribed, with the names of participants anonymised, for analysis. It was decided to supplement the findings from these groups with a similar method of acquiring data with local walking groups. The researchers joined organised walks in order to discuss on recreational walking while walking and picnicking. The walking groups were all local branches of the Ramblers’ Association, the largest walking organisation in the UK. The research process involved discussion between the researcher and small groups in the walking party (which attracted over 30 participants on each occasion) moving between the smaller groups in the walking party, and during breaks 144 Health Motivations for Recreational Walking with larger groups. The focus group format was replicated here, initially enquiring about walking in general, then gradually involving the idea of the trail following the Trent, although the duration was longer (the walks ranged between 6 and 12 miles). Because of the larger group size, each set discussion topic was allocated more time ‘Real-time’ research focused on the walker’s experiences is an emergent method, and recent examples include den Breejen’s (2007) study on walkers on the West Highland Way, Scotland, which involved the use of a daily in situ questionnaire to capture the experiences of the walker as they completed the trail. den Breejen argued that the experience is not static, and therefore the data captured would be more reflective of the respondent’s thoughts at the time, rather than at a later date. Several geographical studies have used a similar approach, termed as ‘mobile methodologies’ where data is acquired by the researcher in motion in the ‘field’ (Hein et al: 2008). The principles used in an ‘indoor’ focus group are present in this method: open discussion about the relevant issue, group dynamics, and shared investment in the topic of discussion. There were some unavoidable differences: the outdoor groups were subject to the elements: weather, and other conditions, as no recording was possible, only field notes could be taken. Therefore results were only comparable to a certain degree, yet still added to the understanding of the topic. 4 4.1 Results & Discussion 48B General information regarding focus group participation 103B In most of the focus groups the proportion of females was greater than that of males, in one case a high percentage (80% females approx), but more often around 60%. The focus group sessions were predominantly in the 4560 age group, with some younger participants. The walking groups were more skewed towards the older age groups overall. In terms of occupation, this was only known for participants in the focus groups, as the researchers made contact beforehand via email. The walking groups were organised only in conjunction with the walk leader, and therefore data on occupation was not ascertained. However, it was established that many participants were retired from a wide variety of jobs. D.J. Davies, L.M. Lumsdon, R. Weston 145 Focus Group Date Location Number of participants 1 5/9/08 Preston, NW England 13 Age range: approx 25-55. 2 male, 11 female 2 5/9/08 Preston, NW England 9 Age range: approx 20-55. 3 male, 6 female 3 19/9/08 Stoke on Trent, Central England 9 Age range: approx 30-65. 6 male, 3 female. 4 30/10/08 Nottingham, Central England 8 Age range: approx 30-60. 5 30/10/08 Nottingham, Central England 6 1 male, 5 female. Age range: approx 18-55. 6 21/10/08 Walk in Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent, Central England c.30 Staffordshire Ramblers. Approximately equal females and males. Mostly over 50 with a few exceptions 7 26/10/08 Walk in Dovedale, Peak District, Central England c.25 Nottinghamshire Ramblers. Slightly more females than males, around 75% 50+ in age, the rest ranging from late teens up. 8 19/11/08 Circular walk: Stramshall, Uttoxeter area, Central England c.20 East Staffordshire Ramblers group. Approx. 60% female, 40% male. All over 50. Table 1 – Details of focus groups Comments 146 4.2 Health Motivations for Recreational Walking Motivations for recreational walking 104B Each focus group began with a short introduction of participants, who were each asked to briefly summarise their involvement in walking for leisure. The responses described the participants’ general perspective on their personal situation with regards to walking. The themes discussed are listed in table 2. Motivations to go walking Preferences whilst walking Exercise and physical health benefits of walking Experiences offered by recreational walking Attachment to places Aesthetic attraction of walking Benefits to mental wellbeing Sense of achievement Shared experience, social aspects Functional walking (dog walking, walking to work etc) Self-description of walking (such as casual or serious walker, frequency, level of experience) Barriers to recreational walking (such as lifestyle barriers) Types of experiences (challenge, achievements etc.) Company (solo or group walking, walking with children) Aesthetic preferences Amenities and refreshments Human interest (Histories, industry, river activity) Relationship to other users (cyclists, local residents in walking area) Information Route / walking environment (paths, gates, linear / circular routes, rivers etc.) Dislikes whilst walking Practical considerations (such as equipment) Aesthetics (including rubbish and over-managed paths) Walking environment (including tricky surfaces, stiles or brambles) Relationship to other users (including cyclists and horses) Information (signs, boards etc.) Transport to and from walks Vehicle access and parking at walking destinations Travel to walk location Car-dependency of walkers Linear / Circular walks, modal preferences Information (such as public transport timetables) Table 2 -List of themes explored in focus groups D.J. Davies, L.M. Lumsdon, R. Weston 147 Taking exercise was noted as being a key motivation by most people either when prompted or otherwise. There was an agreement across all groups that walking as a pursuit is healthy. In many cases, but not exclusively, the link between walking and health was discussed in an urban context regarding walk trips as a healthy substitute for the bus or car trip. ‘I enjoy walking leisurely as F1 said, around cities, also to keep fit mainly, I don’t really do many long distance walks, although I may want to try some at some stage, but it is mainly just to keep fit, walking around cities to explore the area.’ ‘I walk into work everyday, I haven’t caught a bus for ages, I’m really enthused about it – I have thought about putting stickers on bus stops to tell people to walk because it’s so good. It saves you money, its good exercise, it makes you feel good inside. You see loads of things as you’re walking so I’m really enthusiastic about it, I don’t do much leisure walking, I do go out for walks when I can but not regularly’ For many walking time is restricted due to working hours and perceived busy lifestyles; this was identified as a key constraint. These themes mirror general trends which have been observed in the literature on walking as a means of physical activity. Working longer hours reduces the likelihood of regular exercise (Pophan & Mitchell: 2006). Close proximity of the proposed trail to urban areas is therefore likely to encourage usage, as travel time is reduced. Access to public open space and the quality of the walking environment are determinants which have been identified as being important in motivating people to walk more (Giles-Corti et al: 2005). Some of the focus group discussion on motivations to walk were expressed in terms of the experiences gained when walking, which were often associated with what was seen on the walk: either products of human activity (such as buildings or industrial history), or natural scenery (including topography, landscape, wildlife rivers and hills). The latter was often discussed in relation to the benefits of walking for mental health. This theme was consistent across most of the focus groups, and in general was a more significant motivator than the need to maintain physical health. ‘I think hills are quite nice, because you get that feeling of space, it de-stresses you and water is always nice to walk along’ 148 Health Motivations for Recreational Walking This is in accordance with studies which report that green space has a positive psychological effect on mental well-being (Maas et al: 2006, Hartig: 2006) and suggest that landscape planning should address this by including more green space near residences (Grahn & Stigsdotter: 2003). Brook (2009) discusses the importance of green spaces, and nature in human lives, observing that the degree of interaction with nature is related to the development of important instincts and skills which in general humans require. There is an additional suggestion that the rapid development of a lifestyle which draws people away from the natural world is an unnatural process in evolutionary terms. There was also a discussion about the differences in the level of detail of observation possible when walking, cycling and travelling in a car. B1 ‘The variety of what you see that you wouldn’t see moving in a car, you notice things you wouldn’t see’ K1 ‘You see things you wouldn’t see’ G1 ‘Something that’s interesting though, the number of miles I used to do cycling – you see more, and walking is coming down another speed, it’s more intimate – you see more, when we used to go cycling in the peak district you see some glorious things, but walking in the Peaks and around Nottinghamshire, you see more details and the smells are better.’ It was acknowledged that walking is a pursuit which can include people from all backgrounds and a range of abilities (figure 4). There were, however, several emerging ‘categories’ of walking, some of which could be described as primarily functional, some purely for leisure, and others where a conscious effort had been made to introduce walking to increase physical exercise into everyday living. Rather than discrete categories, there appears to be a wide spectrum of involvement. ‘Pendle Hill is a good example when we got to the top there were other people coming from the other direction one of them was a bloke with a stick and a rucksack and behind him was a couple of ladies and I thought it was fantastic because there were all these people from different ages etc and we all converged on the top of the hill and we were all enjoying it for different reasons’ D.J. Davies, L.M. Lumsdon, R. Weston 149 Preferences Participants were also asked to describe what made a good walk. This can be distinguished from motivations to walking, as it assumes that they have already made the decision to walk, and therefore concentrates on their preferences whilst walking. It is however acknowledged, that the presence of preferred aspects of a walk such as pleasant scenery, will affect the level of motivation to walk in certain locations. For the purpose of clarity, the themes are listed as preferences and dislikes in table 2, although in many cases the same theme was discussed both negatively and positively. Aesthetics (varied landscapes, hills, open spaces and rivers) were clearly an important component of people’s perception of enjoyment when walking. The level of management of pathways in the countryside was cited, not only in a practical sense (giving a sense of direction or dictating the difficulty of the walk), but also in terms of its appearance. ‘I think in contrast what I don’t like is when it’s over managed so when it’s almost a road all the gates are the same it’s over sign posted you don’t have the possibility of getting lost you don’t experience as much it’s just off the shelf package.’ Both high and low levels of management were discussed in negative and positive at terms. ‘Wilderness’ and levels of management are issues which recreational studies have long explored. Whilst some outdoor recreation participants favour areas of ‘wilderness’ and its untouched appeal, others recognise preference for facilities, or easy passage between destinations within rural locations for recreation (Hendee et al: 1968). Kay & Moxham (1996) recognise the effect of popularity of certain walking locations; ‘hoardes’ are crowding footpaths and destroying the countryside. Another theme which emerged in some focus groups described certain paths as ‘motorways of people’. Clearly, this level of use detracts from the feeling of peace and quiet, discussed earlier in terms of its effect on mental wellbeing. ‘Some of the paths are over used they are like motorways of people. I use the Robin Hood Way and the paths are just getting wider and wider the main paths are being used and the grass at the sides are getting trodden down’ 150 Health Motivations for Recreational Walking One general observation is that most positive aspects of walking are focused on views and landscape, whilst negative aspects were closer, smaller-scale, and centred around the path, such as physical barriers. K2 ‘Well sometimes when you’re following little arrows and out can’t quite tell where you’re meant to be going. If you’ve got children and you have to back track then they hate that, they lose interest so you’ve got to always know where you’re going.’ L1 ‘So good signage?’ General ‘yes’ in response L1 ‘One of the complaints you come across that I’ve found is once you’re leaving a road and the path goes across two fields and then it doesn’t go anywhere. What else?’ B2 ‘Farms, they deliberately block the way with barbed wire sometimes. You can get quite stuck sometimes’ F1 ‘There’s the consistency, when you go to a certain area, a field and as you’re walking you come back into a bit of urban or a motorway bridge because your not out in the country anymore, a couple of miles away from anything. There are nice bits in Preston but then every now and again you come to an area that is littered and is unavoidable, like it’s a third world set up, so its keep a consistency.’ An additional discussion point related to social company on the walk: group walking, walking with friends, and solo walking (mentioned as an alternative experience because of the solitude and exclusively by male participants). The availability of refreshments, such as in a café or public house, was viewed as a bonus. Walking with young children was also relevant to some people, with this dictating the length and location of the walk and type of experience. ‘…at one time I used to do a lot of long distance walking in my younger days but since the family has come along that has stopped. Now we’re just getting back in, the children are now 8 so there are just at the age where they can do a ‘decent’ walk with boots on and things like that, and we all enjoy it, but as you said it’s got to be interesting for them with plenty of breaks along the way, but I’m just getting back into it really for pleasure’ D.J. Davies, L.M. Lumsdon, R. Weston 151 Transport to and from recreational walks Transport to and from walking location was also a point of discussion. Whilst there was agreement regarding the detrimental impact of car travel on the environment this was not considered as a factor influencing the choice of mode of transport. Where a preferred walk or trail was not in close proximity to residences, participants were likely to use a car. Individuals in the walking groups were involved in car sharing, The reasons for choosing a car were related to a lack of understanding or information about public transport, and perceived unreliability. A main reason, however, was made in many cases, was simply that people had not considered alternatives; the car was the default option and sometimes this involved two vehicles. J1 ‘You get further; we’re trying to do the North West coastal path by getting the train then walking to the next and so on. There are certain points where we can’t do that so we will have to take two cars up like we had to do on the Ribble Way.’ J2 ‘Also, linears are sometimes so long that you need to take two cars, and if you haven’t got two cars you have to walk.’ Some participants were in favour of not using cars, as they detract from the natural feel of a rural trails and paths and can provide extra freedom from the car. L1 ‘it’s the natural surroundings’ J3 ‘The wildness, being able to access somewhere that a vehicle can’t access, it’s that uniqueness’ L1 ‘So even though you need to get access to the area, once you’ve got that access…’ D1 ‘You’ve got that privileged view’ 152 Health Motivations for Recreational Walking The inflexibility of public transport was acknowledged in terms of getting back after the end of the walk. Public transport did not always provide a means of reaching the desired location for the start of the walk as the bus stop is often too far away. The use of public transport in itself is associated with higher levels of physical activity. Gorman et al (2003) consider the potential of transport policies to improve health, by not only facilitating walking and cycling, but also by increasing public transport usage as each journey by public transport involves an average of 10 minutes to or from the bus stop or station. ‘I think I get more satisfaction from not relying on cars obviously I’m involved in providing public transport and the argument is always going to be there is not sufficient public transport if you want to get somewhere late bus services finish at 7 or 8pm. So the issue is having to walk back. If you’re on a 5-day walk and heading towards a youth hostel or something that’s different. I think not relying on the car gives you a better sense of freedom and we’re far too reliant on the car in this day and age anyway’ Ideas and considerations for the proposed trail There was also discussion in each focus group regarding the proposed trail, who might use it, and what they felt were important considerations for its development. This was open in nature, which resulted in a wide range of themes being discussed, which differed from one focus group to the next. The discussion focused on the types of potential users, with the participants once again differentiating between serious and casual walkers, suggesting that they would have different requirements, especially in terms of the level and type of information they might need. The appeal of completing the longdistance walk would be irrelevant for many users, it was argued. Thus, there were calls for marketing to be directed to small circular walks using the trail near to urban areas, themed walks, walks with appeal to children, and links to local attraction, nature reserves and industrial heritage. The human activity associated with waterside walks was an additional point of interest. There was a widely held view that a trail should be appealing to all ‘types’ of walker. ‘I would have your main route keeping close to the river with the options to branch off with little circular walks. It would be nice for those that drive to it, to drive to a certain point, walk up a bit do a circular walk and come back rather than just trying to do one section of it at a time’ D.J. Davies, L.M. Lumsdon, R. Weston 5 153 Conclusion This study used qualitative methods to gain insight into the recreational walking market in near urban areas and in relation to a proposed riverside trail to link them. The main aim of the research was to ascertain the importance of health as a motivator to walk for recreation, secondly to elicit other motivators and preferences associated with walking, thirdly to assess views regarding access and lastly to understand the potential implications and issues relating to a proposed long-distance walking trail. On a methodological note there were very few differences in responses from focus groups undertaken in a room and those out in the field with one exception. People on the walks were able to draw on the proximity of the environment to make their point and this stimulated more discussion without moderator intervention. There were also no differences recorded between groups located near to the River Trent and those further afield. Focus groups, of course, have limitations but in this study provided to be a useful approach to gain insights regarding paths and trails near to urban areas. The participants in the focus groups perceived that the proposed trail would attract a wide range of users, including local people doing short walks and day walks on sections of the trail and local paths. This would be the main market for such a facility. Visitors from further afield would be a small minority and were more likely to complete the entire trail, either in sections or in one holiday. Whilst all participants recognised the health benefits of walking, there were a range of different motivations and perceived barriers to walk amongst individuals. For some people the health benefits were a secondary factor and mental well-being resulting from relaxation was considered to be more important. Perhaps more significantly, a dichotomy emerged in many of the group sessions between some wanting the countryside to appear untouched and with no trace of vehicles where the sound of traffic cannot be heard. Others wanted easy access and more contact with other people and places on the paths. The preference was generally for paths to appear natural, and not ‘over-managed’ or too many signs, although a diversity (a combination of all levels of management) was important. Preferences for walking location (and the choice to make circular or linear walks) are bound up to an extent with practical considerations about being able to take a car and a sub-conscious dependency on cars to be able to travel everywhere (Sheller, 2004). However, whilst there is a perceived freedom using a car for some people, the aim to travel healthily for others is seen in preference so as to enjoy linear walks which they can combine with public transport, or a walk or cycle trip to the country using the trail. 154 Health Motivations for Recreational Walking The findings of this study have implications for planning and development of local footpaths and trails in relation to healthy travel. 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