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Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for...
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Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Aerospace Science and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 16076

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Filomena Piscitelli

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Materials and Structures, CIRA–Italian Aerospace Research Centre, Via Maiorise, 1, 81043 Capua, Italy
Interests: development and characterization of superhydrophobic/icephobic coatings; chemistry of surfaces; surface characterizations; aeronautical coatings

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Typically, supercooled water droplets in the clouds, which remain liquid below zero and suddenly turn to ice after the impact with aircraft surfaces, are the main sources of ice deposition during a flight. The ice accumulation on aircraft surfaces alters the airflow, reduces the lift force and potentially causes the aerodynamic stall and the aircrafts’ loss of control. In order to prevent or reduce ice formation, or alternatively, to remove the ice once it has formed, anti-icing and de-icing systems are usually adopted. Currently, the active ice protection systems (IPS), especially those that are thermal, electro-mechanic and pneumatic, represent the most largely employed systems, but their use often implicates higher construction complexity, weight, manufacturing and management costs, and a higher aircraft energy consumption. Therefore, it would be advantageous if surfaces could passively reduce or delay ice formation and facilitate ice removal. In this regard, superhydrophobic/icephobic coatings can be considered as a valuable solution, since they could reduce the permanence of water droplets impacting the surface, then reduce/delay ice formation. In small aircrafts, drones and unmanned aircrafts, where no active IPS can be employed, the passive coatings represent the unique allowable ice protection system; instead, for large aircrafts, the combination of active and passive IPS could be seen as a strategic instrument able to assure high efficiency in a wide range of environmental conditions, by reducing power consumption all the while.

Among the most challenging requirements, the coatings have to be icephobic in a large range of environmental conditions and highly durable and wear resistant, e.g., to sand and rain erosion. 

Message:

It is our great pleasure and honor to have been asked by the publisher of Applied Science to provide a greeting message for readers and briefly introduce this Special Issue. I hope that many researchers will contribute to this interesting topic by submitting their works. Anti-icing coatings could be a potential solution to also make future flights safe in icing conditions, all the while reducing power consumption and thus pollution emissions. Thank you for your valuable contribution!

Dr. Filomena Piscitelli
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • icephobic
  • superhydrophobic
  • coatings
  • passive IPS
  • anti-icing
  • durability

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 162 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue “Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications”
by Filomena Piscitelli
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(3), 1288; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14031288 - 4 Feb 2024
Viewed by 575
Abstract
The formation of ice can be very dangerous to flight safety, especially in cold climates, since ice accumulated on the surfaces of the aircraft can alter the aerodynamics, increase the weight, and reduce lift, leading to catastrophic stall situations in some cases [...] [...] Read more.
The formation of ice can be very dangerous to flight safety, especially in cold climates, since ice accumulated on the surfaces of the aircraft can alter the aerodynamics, increase the weight, and reduce lift, leading to catastrophic stall situations in some cases [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)

Research

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15 pages, 5875 KiB  
Article
Transparent Silicone–Epoxy Coatings with Enhanced Icephobic Properties for Photovoltaic Applications
by Katarzyna Ziętkowska, Bartłomiej Przybyszewski, Dominik Grzęda, Rafał Kozera, Anna Boczkowska, Malwina Liszewska, Daria Pakuła, Robert Edward Przekop and Bogna Sztorch
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(13), 7730; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137730 - 29 Jun 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1279
Abstract
Recently, the photovoltaic technology has become very popular as a means to produce renewable energy. One of the problems that are still unsolved in this area of the industry is that photovoltaic panels are subject to a significant loss of efficiency due to [...] Read more.
Recently, the photovoltaic technology has become very popular as a means to produce renewable energy. One of the problems that are still unsolved in this area of the industry is that photovoltaic panels are subject to a significant loss of efficiency due to the accumulation of dust and dirt. In addition, during the winter season, the accumulation of snow and ice also reduces or stops the energy production. The current methods of dealing with this problem are inefficient and pollute the environment. One way with high potential to prevent the build-up of dirt and ice is to use transparent coatings with self-cleaning and icephobic properties. In this work, the chemical modification of an epoxy–silicone hybrid resin using dually functionalized polysiloxanes was carried out. The icephobic properties (ice adhesion and freezing delay time of water droplets), hydrophobic properties (water contact angle, contact angle hysteresis, and roll-off angle), average surface roughness, and optical properties were characterized. It can be concluded that the performed chemical modification resulted in a significant improvement of the icephobic properties of the investigated coatings: ice adhesion decreased by 69%, and the freezing delay time increased by 17 times compared to those of the unmodified sample. The polysiloxanes also caused a significant reduction in the contact angle hysteresis and roll-off angle. The chemical modifications did not negatively affect the optical properties of the coatings, which is a key requirement for photovoltaic applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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15 pages, 7003 KiB  
Article
A Study on the Sensitivities of an Ice Protection System Combining Thermoelectric and Superhydrophobic Coating to Icing Environment Parameters
by Lei Yu, Yuan Wu, Huanyu Zhao and Dongyu Zhu
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(11), 6607; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116607 - 29 May 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 840
Abstract
The hybrid Ice Protection System combining thermoelectric and superhydrophobic coating is efficient and benefits from low-energy consumption. In order to explore the application details of superhydrophobic coating, this paper investigated the sensitivities of the Ice Protection System parameters including the range of the [...] Read more.
The hybrid Ice Protection System combining thermoelectric and superhydrophobic coating is efficient and benefits from low-energy consumption. In order to explore the application details of superhydrophobic coating, this paper investigated the sensitivities of the Ice Protection System parameters including the range of the superhydrophobic coating, heating range and power to icing environmental parameters. In this paper, an icing wind tunnel test was adopted to study the performance of this Ice Protection System under different icing conditions, as well as the influence of the superhydrophobic coating range, heating range and power variation on ice protection. The results showed that the superhydrophobic coating is effective only when it covers the droplet impingement area, with the heating power requirement emerging as a critical design consideration that is extremely sensitive to environmental temperature changes. Additionally, median volumetric diameter determines the protection area to be protected, while liquid water content variation has little effect on the designed Ice Protection System in contrast. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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20 pages, 10771 KiB  
Article
Icing Wind Tunnel Test Campaign on a Nacelle Lip-Skin to Assess the Effect of a Superhydrophobic Coating on Ice Accretion
by Filomena Piscitelli, Salvatore Palazzo and Felice De Nicola
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(8), 5183; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13085183 - 21 Apr 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1126
Abstract
The formation of ice on nacelle causes the reduction or loss of aerodynamic performance, fuel consumption increases, reduced thrust, and the ingestion of ice, which can damage the engine. The piccolo tube anti-icing employed as an active ice protection system has limitations in [...] Read more.
The formation of ice on nacelle causes the reduction or loss of aerodynamic performance, fuel consumption increases, reduced thrust, and the ingestion of ice, which can damage the engine. The piccolo tube anti-icing employed as an active ice protection system has limitations in terms of performance losses and energy costs. Furthermore, according to the FAA regulation, it cannot be activated during takeoff and initial flight phases in order to avoid engine thrust reduction. This work reports on an icing wind tunnel test campaign performed at initial flight phases conditions on the M28 PZL nacelle before and after the application of a superhydrophobic coating in order to study the effect of wettability on ice accretion. Results highlighted that an ice thickness reduction of −49% has been recorded at −12 °C, matched to an increase in the impingement length of 0.5%. At 95 m/s and at 420 s of exposure time, the ice thickness was reduced by −27% and −14%, respectively, whereas the impingement length reductions were −9.6% and −7.6%. Finally, an ice thickness reduction of −8% was observed at a liquid water content of 1 g/m3, matched to an increase in the impingement length of 3.7% and to a reduction in length and number of the frozen rivulets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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13 pages, 2628 KiB  
Article
Erosion Resistant Hydrophobic Coatings for Passive Ice Protection of Aircraft
by Naiheng Song and Ali Benmeddour
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(19), 9589; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12199589 - 24 Sep 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1404
Abstract
Novel polymeric coatings, namely slippery polyurethane (SPU) coatings, with high surface hydrophobicity and superior erosion resistance against high speed solid particles and water droplets were successfully developed to protect the leading edge of fast moving aerodynamic structures, such as aircraft wings and rotor [...] Read more.
Novel polymeric coatings, namely slippery polyurethane (SPU) coatings, with high surface hydrophobicity and superior erosion resistance against high speed solid particles and water droplets were successfully developed to protect the leading edge of fast moving aerodynamic structures, such as aircraft wings and rotor blades, against ice accretion. The coatings comprise newly synthesized surface-modifying polymers (SMPs) bearing fluorinated and polydimethylsiloxane branches at a loading level of 1–5 wt.%, based on the total resin solid, which showed good compatibility with the erosion-resistant polyurethane matrix (PU-R) and rendered effective surface hydrophobicity and slipperiness to the coatings, as evidenced by the high water contact angles of 100–115°. The coatings can be easily be sprayed or solution cast and cured at ambient temperature to provide highly durable thin coating films. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) investigation showed concentration of fluorine on the surface. The presence of 1–5 wt.% of SMPs in the polyurethane matrix slightly reduced the tensile modulus but had no significant impact on the tensile strength. All coating films exhibited good thermal stability with no material softening or degradation after heating at 121 °C for 24 h. DSC heating scans revealed no thermal transitions in the temperature range of −80 °C to 200 °C. Ice adhesion strength (IAS) tests using a static push rig in a cold room of −14 °C showed IAS as low as 220 kPa for the SPU coatings, which is much lower than that of PU-R (i.e., about 620 kPa). Sand erosion tests using 50 μm angular alumina particles at an impinging speed of 150 m/s and an impinging angle of 30° revealed very low erosion rates of ca. 100 μg/g sand for the coatings. Water droplet erosion tests at 175 m/s using 463 μm droplets with 42,000 impingements every minute showed no significant coating removal after 20 min of testing. The combination of the high surface hydrophobicity, low ice adhesion strength and superior erosion resistance makes the SPU coatings attractive for ice protection of aircraft structures, where the coatings’ erosion durability is of paramount importance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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13 pages, 4029 KiB  
Article
Numerical Modelling of Droplets and Beads Behavior over Super-Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Coatings under in-Flight Icing Conditions
by Giulio Croce, Nicola Suzzi, Marco Pretto and Pietro Giannattasio
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(15), 7654; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12157654 - 29 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1038
Abstract
Current technology has produced a wide range of advanced micro-structured surfaces, designed for achieving the best wettability and adhesion performances for each specific application. In the context of in-flight icing simulations, this opens new challenges since the current most popular and successful ice [...] Read more.
Current technology has produced a wide range of advanced micro-structured surfaces, designed for achieving the best wettability and adhesion performances for each specific application. In the context of in-flight icing simulations, this opens new challenges since the current most popular and successful ice accretion prediction tools neglect the details of the droplet behavior opting for a continuous film model. Here, a phenomenological model, following, in a Lagrangian approach, the evolution of the single droplets from the impinging to the onset of rivulets, is developed to simulate the performances of super-hydrophobic surfaces in icing application. Possible rebound and droplet spread on the impact, coalescence, single ice bead formation and droplet to rivulet transition are taken into account. The first validation shows how the models are able to predict the anti-icing capability of a super-hydrophobic surface coupled with a heating system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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19 pages, 10149 KiB  
Article
Characterization in Relevant Icing Conditions of Two Superhydrophobic Coatings
by Filomena Piscitelli
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(8), 3705; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12083705 - 7 Apr 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1671
Abstract
The formation of ice can be very detrimental to flight safety, since the ice accumulated on the surfaces of the aircraft can alter both the aerodynamics and the weight, leading in some cases to catastrophic stall situations. To date, only active Ice Protection [...] Read more.
The formation of ice can be very detrimental to flight safety, since the ice accumulated on the surfaces of the aircraft can alter both the aerodynamics and the weight, leading in some cases to catastrophic stall situations. To date, only active Ice Protection Systems (IPS), which require energy to work, are being employed. The use of passive coatings able to prevent, delay, or reduce ice accretion in real flight icing conditions can be viewed as a valuable instrument to reduce the environmental footprint of aircraft. The majority of work in the literature focuses on testing superhydrophobic coatings at a speed equal to or lower than 50 m/s or rather in combination with an active system. The present study was aimed at understanding the effectiveness of two superhydrophobic coatings applied on two NACA0015 wing profiles in reducing the ice formation in relevant flight icing conditions, through tests carried out in an Icing Wind Tunnel at 50 and 95 m/s and at temperatures ranging between −3 and −23 °C. Results demonstrated that at temperatures higher than −12 °C, at both 50 and 95 m/s, with exposure time ranging between 72 and 137 s, the developed coatings can be helpful in reducing the ice accretion by 12 to 100%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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17 pages, 36077 KiB  
Article
Parameter Study for the Ice Adhesion Centrifuge Test
by Nadine Rehfeld, Björn Speckmann and Volkmar Stenzel
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 1583; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12031583 - 1 Feb 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1612
Abstract
In this study, we assessed the effects of ice types, test parameters, and surface properties on measurement data of the ice adhesion centrifuge test. This method is often used for the evaluation of low ice adhesion surfaces, although no test standard has been [...] Read more.
In this study, we assessed the effects of ice types, test parameters, and surface properties on measurement data of the ice adhesion centrifuge test. This method is often used for the evaluation of low ice adhesion surfaces, although no test standard has been defined yet. The aim of this paper is to improve the understanding of the relevant test parameter and identify crucial criteria to be considered in harmonization and standardization efforts. Results clearly indicate that the ice type (static vs. impact ice) has the greatest impact on the test results, with static ice delivering higher values in a broader data span. This is beneficial for material developers as it eases the evaluation process, but it contradicts the technical efforts to design tests that are as close as possible to realistic technical environments. Additionally, the selected ice type has a significant impact on the relevance of the surface properties (roughness, wettability). Despite the complexity of interactions, a trend was observed that the roughness is the determining surface parameter for high impact velocity ice (95 m/s). In contrast, for tests with static ice, the wettability of the test surface is of higher relevance, leading to the risk of overestimating the icephobic performance of structured surfaces. The results of this paper contribute to the demanding future tasks of defining well-founded test standards and support the development of icephobic surfaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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21 pages, 3658 KiB  
Article
A Multi-Tool Analysis to Assess the Effectiveness of Passive Ice Protection Materials to Assist Rotorcraft Manual De-Icing
by Jean-Denis Brassard, Dany Posteraro, Sarah Sobhani, Marco Ruggi and Gelareh Momen
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(24), 11847; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112411847 - 13 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2148
Abstract
Search and rescue missions using rotorcrafts need to be reliable all year long, even in winter conditions. In some cases of deployment prior to take off, the crew may need to manually remove accumulated contaminant from the critical surfaces using tools at their [...] Read more.
Search and rescue missions using rotorcrafts need to be reliable all year long, even in winter conditions. In some cases of deployment prior to take off, the crew may need to manually remove accumulated contaminant from the critical surfaces using tools at their disposal. However, icy contaminant may be hard to remove since the rotorcrafts critical surfaces could be cooler than the environment, thus promoting adhesion. Currently, there exists several passive ice protection materials that could reduce the ice adhesion strength and assist the manual de-icing. The aim of this paper is to propose a detailed comparative procedure to assess the ability of materials to assist the manual de-icing of rotorcrafts. The proposed procedure consists of the characterization of materials using several laboratory tests in order to determine their characteristics pertaining to wettability, their icephobic behavior, and finally their assessment under a multi-tool analysis to evaluate if they can assist. The multi-tool analysis uses different mechanical tools, which are currently used during normal operation, to execute a gradual de-icing procedure, which begins with the softest to the hardest tool using a constant number of passes or strokes, under different types of simulated precipitation. Five different materials were used to evaluate the proposed procedure: Aluminum (used as a reference), two silicone-based coatings (Nusil and SurfEllent), an epoxy-based coating (Wearlon), and finally a commercial ski wax (Swix). All of the tested materials could assist the manual de-icing, within a certain limit, when compared to the bare aluminum. However, SurfEllent was the material that obtained the best overall results. This procedure could be easily adapted to different fields of application and could be used as a development tool for the optimization and the assessment of new materials aimed to reduce ice adhesion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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Review

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16 pages, 3073 KiB  
Review
Superhydrophobic Coating Solutions for Deicing Control in Aircraft
by Michele Ferrari and Francesca Cirisano
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(21), 11684; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132111684 - 25 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 868
Abstract
The risk of accidents caused by ice adhesion on critical aircraft surfaces is a significant concern. To combat this, active ice protection systems (AIPS) are installed on aircraft, which, while effective, also increase fuel consumption and add complexity to the aircraft systems. Replacing [...] Read more.
The risk of accidents caused by ice adhesion on critical aircraft surfaces is a significant concern. To combat this, active ice protection systems (AIPS) are installed on aircraft, which, while effective, also increase fuel consumption and add complexity to the aircraft systems. Replacing AIPS with Passive Ice Protection Systems (PIPS) or reducing the energy consumption of AIPS could significantly decrease aircraft fuel consumption. Superhydrophobic (SH) coatings have been developed to reduce water adherence to surfaces and have the potential to reduce ice adhesion, commonly referred to as icephobic coatings. The question remains whether such coatings could reduce the cost associated with AIPS and provide durability and performance through suitable tests. In this paper, we then review current knowledge of superhydrophobic and icephobic coatings as potential passive solutions to be utilized alternatively in combination with active systems. We can identify physical parameters, coating composition, structure, roughness, and morphology, durability as properties not to be neglected in the design and development of reliable protection systems in aircraft maintenance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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33 pages, 9321 KiB  
Review
A Review on Ultrafast Laser Enabled Excellent Superhydrophobic Anti-Icing Performances
by Lizhong Wang, Huanyu Zhao, Dongyu Zhu, Li Yuan, Hongjun Zhang, Peixun Fan and Minlin Zhong
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(9), 5478; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095478 - 28 Apr 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2153
Abstract
Fabricating and developing superhydrophobic anti-icing surfaces have been a research hotspot for eliminating undesired icing issues. Among various fabricating strategies, ultrafast laser micro-nano fabrication is regarded as a greatly promising technique owing to its advantages of high geometric accuracy, highly flexible microstructure or [...] Read more.
Fabricating and developing superhydrophobic anti-icing surfaces have been a research hotspot for eliminating undesired icing issues. Among various fabricating strategies, ultrafast laser micro-nano fabrication is regarded as a greatly promising technique owing to its advantages of high geometric accuracy, highly flexible microstructure or dimension availability, no contact, and no material limitation. A number of diverse micro-nanostructured superhydrophobic surfaces have been developed by ultrafast lasers and demonstrated extraordinary anti-icing properties. They are collectively known as ultrafast laser-fabricated superhydrophobic anti-icing surfaces (ULSASs). In this article, we reviewed the recent advances in ULSASs from micro-nano structure fabricating to anti-icing performances and to potential applications. The surface wettability and mechanisms of ultrafast laser micro-nano fabrication are first introduced, showing the strong ability of ultrafast laser for fabricating superhydrophobic surfaces. Then the deepened understanding of the relationship between superhydrophobicity and icephobicity is discussed in detail, including Cassie–Baxter stability, surface durability and environmental adaptability. Eventually, the passive anti-icing technique, the passive/active combined anti-icing technique and their practical applications are presented together with current challenges and future prospects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Superhydrophobic and Icephobic Coatings as Passive Ice Protection Systems for Aeronautical Applications)
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